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C++: String Data Structure / String Class

A useful data structure for omitting some of the C++ runtime library from a project.

The C++ string class is a very valuable addition to the C++ library. Every wonder how they did it? Here is an example string class. It takes strings, String objects, or numbers which are converted to strings. It copies, assigns and concatenates strings, String objects and numbers. It is very fast taking advantage of the 32-bit or 64-bit registers of a computer and not copying data one byte at a time (when copying from another String object). A String object only consumes 4 bytes of stack space on 32-bit systems and 8 bytes on 64-bit systems.

Don't confuse String with string.

Supports both char for ASCII and wchar_t or unsigned short for UNICODE strings.

See this article for an example on how to implement the C++ std::cin and std::cout library.


#include <iostream>
#include "string.h"
using namespace std;

int main()
{
	String str = "abc";
	cout << str.c_string() << endl;
	str += "def";
	cout << *str << endl; // * is alternate to using str.c_string()
	String str2 = str;
	if (str == str2)
		cout << *str << " equal to " << *str2 << endl;
	if (str != "bcdef")
		cout << *str << " not equal to bcdef" << endl;
	if (str > 'a')
		cout << *str << " greater than 'a'" << endl;
	cout << *str2 << endl;
	str += str2;
	cout << *str << endl;
	str += ' ';
	str += 3.141592653589793; // numbers are automatically converted to strings
	cout << *str << endl;
	str2 = 2333222111;
	cout << *str2 << endl;
	cout << (str2 >> 4) << endl; // returns 222111 (str2 starting at character index 4)
	str2 = str2 >> 1; // str2 equals itself starting at character index 1
	cout << *str2 << endl;
	str2 += -776655;
	cout << *str2 << endl;
	return 0;
}

// string.h
#include "strfloat.h"

#ifndef STRING_H
#define STRING_H

typedef char CHAR; // use "wchar_t" or "unsigned short" for UNICODE and "char" for ASCII

void number_to_string(unsigned long long number, CHAR* buffer, const unsigned int negative)
{
	if (negative)
	{
		*buffer++ = '-';
		number = (unsigned long long)(-(long long)number);
	}
	CHAR* first = buffer;
	do
	{
		unsigned digit = (unsigned)(number % 10);
		number /= 10;
		*buffer++ = (CHAR)(digit + '0');
	} while (number > 0);
	*buffer-- = '\0';
	do
	{
		CHAR temp = *buffer;
		*buffer = *first;
		*first = temp;
		--buffer;
		++first;
	} while (first < buffer);
}

void copy_16bit(CHAR* dest, const CHAR* source, const unsigned int length)
{
	unsigned int limit = length >> 1 << 1; // 2^1 is 2
	unsigned int i;
	for (i = 0; i < limit; i += sizeof(void*) / sizeof(CHAR)) // 2 bytes divided by 1 or 2
		*((short*)(dest + i)) = *((short*)(source + i)); // there is no benefit if copying UNICODE string on 16 bit system, but UNICODE is rare for a 16-bit system
	for (; i < length; i++)
		dest[i] = source[i];
	dest[i] = '\0';
}

void copy_32bit(CHAR* dest, const CHAR* source, const unsigned int length)
{
	unsigned int limit = length >> 2 << 2; // 2^2 is 4
	unsigned int i;
	for (i = 0; i < limit; i += sizeof(void*) / sizeof(CHAR)) // 4 bytes divided by 1 or 2
		*((int*)(dest + i)) = *((int*)(source + i));
	for (; i < length; i++)
		dest[i] = source[i];
	dest[i] = '\0';
}

void copy_64bit(CHAR* dest, const CHAR* source, const unsigned int length)
{
	unsigned int limit = length >> 3 << 3; // 2^3 is 8
	unsigned int i;
	for (i = 0; i < limit; i += sizeof(void*) / sizeof(CHAR)) // 8 bytes divided by 1 or 2
		*((long long*)(dest + i)) = *((long long*)(source + i));
	for (; i < length; i++)
		dest[i] = source[i];
	dest[i] = '\0';
}

template <typename T> void float_to_string(T number, CHAR* dest)
{
	dragon4::Options* opt = new dragon4::Options;
	opt->cutoff_mode = dragon4::CutoffMode_TotalLength;
	opt->digits_left = -1;
	opt->digits_right = -1;
	opt->digit_mode = dragon4::DigitMode_Unique;
	opt->exp_digits = -1;
	opt->min_digits = -1;
	opt->precision = -1;
	opt->scientific = (number < 0.0000000000000001 || number >= 100000000000000000.0);
	opt->sign = 0;
	opt->trim_mode = dragon4::TrimMode_DptZeros;
	dragon4::Scratch* scratch = new dragon4::Scratch;
	dragon4::PrintFloat_IEEE_binary(scratch, number, opt);
	int i;
	for (i = 0; scratch->repr[i]; i++)
		dest[i] = scratch->repr[i];
	dest[i] = '\0';
	delete scratch;
	scratch = nullptr;
	delete opt;
	opt = nullptr;
}

class StringData
{
public:
	CHAR* array;
	unsigned int max_size;
	unsigned int length;
	void(*copy_string)(CHAR* dest, const CHAR* source, const unsigned int length);
	StringData(unsigned int buffer_size) : length(0), max_size(buffer_size)
	{
		copy_string = (sizeof(void*) == 8 ? copy_64bit : (sizeof(void*) == 4 ? copy_32bit : copy_16bit));
		array = new CHAR[max_size];
		array[0] = '\0';
	}
	~StringData()
	{
		delete[]array;
		array = nullptr;
	}
};

class String
{
private:
	StringData* sd;

public:
	static unsigned long strlen(const char* sz)
	{
		unsigned long i = 0;
		while (sz[i])
			i++;
		return i;
	}

	String()
	{
		sd = new StringData(1024);
	}

	String(const float source)
	{
		sd = new StringData(1024);
		this->operator=(source);
	}

	String(const double source)
	{
		sd = new StringData(1024);
		this->operator=(source);
	}

	String(const long long source)
	{
		sd = new StringData(1024);
		this->operator=(source);
	}

	String(const unsigned long long source)
	{
		sd = new StringData(1024);
		this->operator=(source);
	}

	String(const long source)
	{
		sd = new StringData(1024);
		this->operator=(source);
	}

	String(const unsigned long source)
	{
		sd = new StringData(1024);
		this->operator=(source);
	}

	String(const int source)
	{
		sd = new StringData(1024);
		this->operator=(source);
	}

	String(const unsigned int source)
	{
		sd = new StringData(1024);
		this->operator=(source);
	}

	String(const CHAR* source)
	{
		sd = new StringData(1024);
		this->operator=(source);
	}

	String(const String& obj)
	{
		sd = new StringData(obj.sd->max_size);
		this->operator=(obj);
	}

	String(const CHAR ch)
	{
		sd = new StringData(1024);
		this->operator=(ch);
	}

	~String()
	{
		delete sd;
		sd = nullptr;
	}

	const CHAR* c_string() const
	{
		return sd->array;
	}

	unsigned int length() const
	{
		return sd->length;
	}

	unsigned int buffer_size() const
	{
		return sd->max_size * sizeof(CHAR);
	}

	unsigned int buffer_length() const
	{
		return sd->max_size;
	}

	const String& operator=(const String& obj)
	{
		if (this != &obj)
		{
			if (obj.sd->length >= sd->max_size) // then increase array size
			{
				sd->max_size = obj.sd->max_size;
				delete[]sd->array;
				sd->array = new CHAR[sd->max_size];
			}
			sd->copy_string(sd->array, obj.sd->array, obj.sd->length);
			sd->length = obj.sd->length;
		}
		return (*this);
	}

	void operator+=(const String& obj)
	{
		if (obj.sd->length >= sd->max_size - sd->length) // then increase array size
		{
			sd->max_size = (obj.sd->length + sd->length) << 1; // give it a little bit of a buffer (2 times length of new string)
			CHAR* new_array = new CHAR[sd->max_size];
			sd->copy_string(new_array, sd->array, sd->length);
			delete[]sd->array;
			sd->array = new_array;
		}
		sd->copy_string(&sd->array[sd->length], obj.sd->array, obj.sd->length);
		sd->length += obj.sd->length;
	}

	void operator+=(const CHAR* source)
	{
		unsigned int i, j;
		for (i = sd->length, j = 0; source[j]; )
		{
			sd->array[i++] = source[j++];
			if (i == sd->max_size) // then increase array size
			{
				sd->max_size += 1024;
				CHAR* new_array = new CHAR[sd->max_size];
				unsigned int x;
				for (x = 0; x < i; x++)
					new_array[x] = sd->array[x];
				new_array[x] = '\0';
				delete[]sd->array;
				sd->array = new_array;
			}
		}
		sd->array[i] = '\0';
		sd->length = i;
	}

	void operator+=(const CHAR ch)
	{
		CHAR sz[2] = { ch, '\0' };
		this->operator+=(sz);
	}

	const CHAR* operator=(const CHAR* source)
	{
		sd->length = 0;
		this->operator+=(source);
		return source;
	}

	CHAR operator=(const CHAR ch)
	{
		sd->length = 0;
		this->operator+=(ch);
		return ch;
	}


	double operator=(const float number)
	{
		CHAR* sz = new CHAR[sizeof(dragon4::Scratch::repr)];
		float_to_string(number, sz);
		this->operator=(sz);
		delete[]sz;
		sz = nullptr;
		return number;
	}

	void operator+=(const float number)
	{
		CHAR* sz = new CHAR[sizeof(dragon4::Scratch::repr)];
		float_to_string(number, sz);
		this->operator+=(sz);
		delete[]sz;
		sz = nullptr;
	}


	double operator=(const double number)
	{
		CHAR* sz = new CHAR[sizeof(dragon4::Scratch::repr)];
		float_to_string(number, sz);
		this->operator=(sz);
		delete[]sz;
		sz = nullptr;
		return number;
	}

	void operator+=(const double number)
	{
		CHAR* sz = new CHAR[sizeof(dragon4::Scratch::repr)];
		float_to_string(number, sz);
		this->operator+=(sz);
		delete[]sz;
		sz = nullptr;
	}


	long long operator=(const long long number)
	{
		CHAR sz[32];
		number_to_string(number, sz, number < 0);
		this->operator=(sz);
		return number;
	}

	void operator+=(const long long number)
	{
		CHAR sz[32];
		number_to_string(number, sz, number < 0);
		this->operator+=(sz);
	}

	unsigned long long operator=(const unsigned long long number)
	{
		CHAR sz[32];
		number_to_string(number, sz, false);
		this->operator=(sz);
		return number;
	}

	void operator+=(const unsigned long long number)
	{
		CHAR sz[32];
		number_to_string(number, sz, false);
		this->operator+=(sz);
	}



	int operator=(const int number)
	{
		this->operator=((long long)number);
		return number;
	}

	void operator+=(const int number)
	{
		this->operator+=((long long)number);
	}

	unsigned int operator=(const unsigned int number)
	{
		this->operator=((unsigned long long)number);
		return number;
	}

	void operator+=(const unsigned int number)
	{
		this->operator+=((unsigned long long)number);
	}



	long operator=(const long number)
	{
		this->operator=((long long)number);
		return number;
	}

	void operator+=(const long number)
	{
		this->operator+=((long long)number);
	}

	unsigned long operator=(const unsigned long number)
	{
		this->operator=((unsigned long long)number);
		return number;
	}

	void operator+=(const unsigned long number)
	{
		this->operator+=((unsigned long long)number);
	}



	bool operator==(const CHAR* str) const
	{
		unsigned int i = 0;
		CHAR* a = sd->array;
		for (i = 0; a[i] && str[i] && a[i] == str[i]; i++);
		return(a[i] == str[i]);
	}

	bool operator==(const String& obj) const
	{
		return this->operator==(obj.sd->array);
	}

	bool operator==(const CHAR ch) const
	{
		CHAR sz[2] = { ch, '\0' };
		return this->operator==(sz);
	}

	bool operator!=(const String& obj) const
	{
		return !this->operator==(obj.sd->array);
	}

	bool operator!=(const CHAR* str) const
	{
		return !this->operator==(str);
	}

	bool operator!=(const CHAR ch) const
	{
		CHAR sz[2] = { ch, '\0' };
		return !this->operator==(sz);
	}

	bool operator>(const CHAR* str) const
	{
		unsigned int i = 0;
		CHAR* a = sd->array;
		for (i = 0; a[i] && str[i] && a[i] == str[i]; i++);
		return(a[i] > str[i]);
	}

	bool operator>(const String& obj) const
	{
		return this->operator>(obj.sd->array);
	}

	bool operator>(const CHAR ch) const
	{
		CHAR sz[2] = { ch, '\0' };
		return this->operator>(sz);
	}

	bool operator<(const CHAR* str) const
	{
		unsigned int i = 0;
		CHAR* a = sd->array;
		for (i = 0; a[i] && str[i] && a[i] == str[i]; i++);
		return(a[i] < str[i]);
	}

	bool operator<(const String& obj) const
	{
		return this->operator<(obj.sd->array);
	}

	bool operator<(const CHAR ch) const
	{
		CHAR sz[2] = { ch, '\0' };
		return this->operator<(sz);
	}

	bool operator>=(const CHAR* str) const
	{
		unsigned int i = 0;
		CHAR* a = sd->array;
		for (i = 0; a[i] && str[i] && a[i] == str[i]; i++);
		return(a[i] >= str[i]);
	}

	bool operator>=(const String& obj) const
	{
		return this->operator>=(obj.sd->array);
	}

	bool operator>=(const CHAR ch) const
	{
		CHAR sz[2] = { ch, '\0' };
		return this->operator>=(sz);
	}

	bool operator<=(const CHAR* str) const
	{
		unsigned int i = 0;
		CHAR* a = sd->array;
		for (i = 0; a[i] && str[i] && a[i] == str[i]; i++);
		return(a[i] <= str[i]);
	}

	bool operator<=(const String& obj) const
	{
		return this->operator<=(obj.sd->array);
	}

	bool operator<=(const CHAR ch) const
	{
		CHAR sz[2] = { ch, '\0' };
		return this->operator<=(sz);
	}

	CHAR operator[](const unsigned int index) const // should enter an index value less than length(); length == '\0'
	{
		return sd->array[index];
	}

	const CHAR* operator>>(const unsigned int index) // returns the string at the given index
	{
		if (index < sd->length)
			return &sd->array[index];
		return &sd->array[sd->length];
	}
};

const CHAR* operator*(const String& obj)
{
	return obj.c_string();
}

#endif

The following code converts a floating-point number to a string.


// strfloat.h
#ifndef STRFLOAT_H
#define STRFLOAT_H

namespace dragon4
{

	typedef enum DigitMode
	{
		/* Round digits to print shortest uniquely identifiable number. */
		DigitMode_Unique,
		/* Output the digits of the number as if with infinite precision */
		DigitMode_Exact,
	} DigitMode;

	typedef enum CutoffMode
	{
		/* up to cutoffNumber significant digits */
		CutoffMode_TotalLength,
		/* up to cutoffNumber significant digits past the decimal point */
		CutoffMode_FractionLength,
	} CutoffMode;

	typedef enum TrimMode
	{
		TrimMode_None,         /* don't trim zeros, always leave a decimal point */
		TrimMode_LeaveOneZero, /* trim all but the zero before the decimal point */
		TrimMode_Zeros,        /* trim all trailing zeros, leave decimal point */
		TrimMode_DptZeros,     /* trim trailing zeros and trailing decimal point */
	} TrimMode;


	// * Options struct for easy passing of Dragon4 options.
	// *
	// *   scientific - boolean controlling whether scientific notation is used
	// *   digit_mode - whether to use unique or fixed fractional output
	// *   cutoff_mode - whether 'precision' refers to all digits, or digits past
	// *                 the decimal point.
	// *   precision - When negative, prints as many digits as needed for a unique
	// *               number. When positive specifies the maximum number of
	// *               significant digits to print.
	// *   sign - whether to always show sign
	// *   trim_mode - how to treat trailing 0s and '.'. See TrimMode comments.
	// *   digits_left - pad characters to left of decimal point. -1 for no padding
	// *   digits_right - pad characters to right of decimal point. -1 for no padding.
	// *                  Padding adds whitespace until there are the specified
	// *                  number characters to sides of decimal point. Applies after
	// *                  trim_mode characters were removed. If digits_right is
	// *                  positive and the decimal point was trimmed, decimal point
	// *                  will be replaced by a whitespace character.
	// *   exp_digits - Only affects scientific output. If positive, pads the
	// *                exponent with 0s until there are this many digits. If
	// *                negative, only use sufficient digits.
	typedef struct {
		int scientific;
		DigitMode digit_mode;
		CutoffMode cutoff_mode;
		int precision;
		int min_digits;
		int sign;
		TrimMode trim_mode;
		int digits_left;
		int digits_right;
		int exp_digits;
	} Options;


	const int c_BigInt_MaxBlocks = 511; /* or 1023 */

	typedef struct BigInt
	{
		unsigned int length;
		unsigned int blocks[c_BigInt_MaxBlocks];
	} BigInt;

	const int BIGINT_DRAGON4_GROUPSIZE = 7;
	typedef struct {
		BigInt bigints[BIGINT_DRAGON4_GROUPSIZE];
		char repr[4096];
	} Scratch;

	unsigned int PrintFloat_IEEE_binary(Scratch* scratch, const float value, const Options* opt);
	unsigned int PrintFloat_IEEE_binary(Scratch* scratch, const double& value, const Options* opt);

}

#endif

// strfloat.cpp
#include "strfloat.h"

#define CEIL(x) (int)((x <= 0.0) ? x : (((int)x < x) ? x : (x + 1)))
#define bitmask_u64(n) (unsigned long long)~(~0ULL << n)
#define bitmask_u32(n) (unsigned int)~(~0UL << n)

namespace dragon4
{

	void movemem(char* dest, const char* src, unsigned count)
	{
		char* temp = new char[count];
		for (unsigned i = 0; i < count; i++)
			temp[i] = src[i];
		for (unsigned i = 0; i < count; i++)
			dest[i] = temp[i];
		delete[]temp;
	}



	// *  Get the log base 2 of a 32-bit unsigned integer.
	// *  http://graphics.stanford.edu/~seander/bithacks.html#IntegerLogLookup
	// */
	static unsigned int LogBase2_32(unsigned int val)
	{
		static const unsigned char logTable[256] =
		{
			0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3,
			4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4,
			5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5,
			5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5,
			6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6,
			6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6,
			6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6,
			6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6,
			7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7,
			7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7,
			7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7,
			7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7,
			7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7,
			7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7,
			7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7,
			7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7
		};

		unsigned int temp;

		temp = val >> 24;
		if (temp)
		{
			return 24 + logTable[temp];
		}

		temp = val >> 16;
		if (temp)
		{
			return 16 + logTable[temp];
		}

		temp = val >> 8;
		if (temp)
		{
			return 8 + logTable[temp];
		}

		return logTable[val];
	}

	static unsigned int LogBase2_64(unsigned long long val)
	{
		unsigned long long temp;

		temp = val >> 32;
		if (temp)
		{
			return 32 + LogBase2_32((unsigned int)temp);
		}

		return LogBase2_32((unsigned int)val);
	}

	/* Copy integer */
	static void BigInt_Copy(BigInt* dst, const BigInt* src)
	{
		unsigned int length = src->length;
		unsigned int* dstp = dst->blocks;
		const unsigned int* srcp;
		for (srcp = src->blocks; srcp != src->blocks + length; ++dstp, ++srcp)
		{
			*dstp = *srcp;
		}
		dst->length = length;
	}

	/* Basic type accessors */
	static void  BigInt_Set_uint64(BigInt* i, unsigned long long val)
	{
		if (val > bitmask_u64(32))
		{
			i->blocks[0] = val & bitmask_u64(32);
			i->blocks[1] = (val >> 32) & bitmask_u64(32);
			i->length = 2;
		}
		else if (val != 0)
		{
			i->blocks[0] = val & bitmask_u64(32);
			i->length = 1;
		}
		else
		{
			i->length = 0;
		}
	}

	static void BigInt_Set_uint32(BigInt* i, unsigned int val)
	{
		if (val != 0)
		{
			i->blocks[0] = val;
			i->length = 1;
		}
		else
		{
			i->length = 0;
		}
	}

	/* Returns 1 if the value is zero */
	static int BigInt_IsZero(const BigInt* i)
	{
		return i->length == 0;
	}

	/* Returns 1 if the value is even */
	static int BigInt_IsEven(const BigInt* i)
	{
		return (i->length == 0) || ((i->blocks[0] & 1) == 0);
	}

	/* Returns 0 if (lhs = rhs), negative if (lhs < rhs), positive if (lhs > rhs) */
	static int BigInt_Compare(const BigInt* lhs, const BigInt* rhs)
	{
		int i;

		/* A bigger length implies a bigger number. */
		int lengthDiff = lhs->length - rhs->length;
		if (lengthDiff != 0)
		{
			return lengthDiff;
		}

		/* Compare blocks one by one from high to low. */
		for (i = lhs->length - 1; i >= 0; --i)
		{
			if (lhs->blocks[i] == rhs->blocks[i])
			{
				continue;
			}
			else if (lhs->blocks[i] > rhs->blocks[i])
			{
				return 1;
			}
			else
			{
				return -1;
			}
		}

		/* no blocks differed */
		return 0;
	}

	/* result = lhs + rhs */
	static void BigInt_Add(BigInt* result, const BigInt* lhs, const BigInt* rhs)
	{
		/* determine which operand has the smaller length */
		const BigInt* large, * small;
		unsigned long long carry = 0;
		const unsigned int* largeCur, * smallCur, * largeEnd, * smallEnd;
		unsigned int* resultCur;

		if (lhs->length < rhs->length)
		{
			small = lhs;
			large = rhs;
		}
		else
		{
			small = rhs;
			large = lhs;
		}

		/* The output will be at least as long as the largest input */
		result->length = large->length;

		/* Add each block and add carry the overflow to the next block */
		largeCur = large->blocks;
		largeEnd = largeCur + large->length;
		smallCur = small->blocks;
		smallEnd = smallCur + small->length;
		resultCur = result->blocks;
		while (smallCur != smallEnd)
		{
			unsigned long long sum = carry + (unsigned long long)(*largeCur) +
				(unsigned long long)(*smallCur);
			carry = sum >> 32;
			*resultCur = sum & bitmask_u64(32);
			++largeCur;
			++smallCur;
			++resultCur;
		}

		/* Add the carry to any blocks that only exist in the large operand */
		while (largeCur != largeEnd)
		{
			unsigned long long sum = carry + (unsigned long long)(*largeCur);
			carry = sum >> 32;
			(*resultCur) = sum & bitmask_u64(32);
			++largeCur;
			++resultCur;
		}

		/* If there's still a carry, append a new block */
		if (carry != 0)
		{
			*resultCur = 1;
			result->length = large->length + 1;
		}
		else
		{
			result->length = large->length;
		}
	}

	/* result = lhs * rhs */
	static void BigInt_Multiply(BigInt* result, const BigInt* lhs, const BigInt* rhs)
	{
		const BigInt* large;
		const BigInt* small;
		unsigned int maxResultLen;
		unsigned int* cur, * end, * resultStart;
		const unsigned int* smallCur;

		/* determine which operand has the smaller length */
		if (lhs->length < rhs->length)
		{
			small = lhs;
			large = rhs;
		}
		else
		{
			small = rhs;
			large = lhs;
		}

		/* set the maximum possible result length */
		maxResultLen = large->length + small->length;

		/* clear the result data */
		for (cur = result->blocks, end = cur + maxResultLen; cur != end; ++cur)
		{
			*cur = 0;
		}

		/* perform standard long multiplication for each small block */
		resultStart = result->blocks;
		for (smallCur = small->blocks;
			smallCur != small->blocks + small->length;
			++smallCur, ++resultStart)
		{

			// * if non-zero, multiply against all the large blocks and add into the
			// * result
			// */
			const unsigned int multiplier = *smallCur;
			if (multiplier != 0)
			{
				const unsigned int* largeCur = large->blocks;
				unsigned int* resultCur = resultStart;
				unsigned long long carry = 0;
				do {
					unsigned long long product = (*resultCur) +
						(*largeCur) * (unsigned long long)multiplier + carry;
					carry = product >> 32;
					*resultCur = product & bitmask_u64(32);
					++largeCur;
					++resultCur;
				} while (largeCur != large->blocks + large->length);

				*resultCur = (unsigned int)(carry & bitmask_u64(32));
			}
		}

		/* check if the terminating block has no set bits */
		if (maxResultLen > 0 && result->blocks[maxResultLen - 1] == 0)
		{
			result->length = maxResultLen - 1;
		}
		else
		{
			result->length = maxResultLen;
		}
	}

	/* result = lhs * rhs */
	static void BigInt_Multiply_int(BigInt* result, const BigInt* lhs, unsigned int rhs)
	{
		/* perform long multiplication */
		unsigned int carry = 0;
		unsigned int* resultCur = result->blocks;
		const unsigned int* pLhsCur = lhs->blocks;
		const unsigned int* pLhsEnd = lhs->blocks + lhs->length;
		for (; pLhsCur != pLhsEnd; ++pLhsCur, ++resultCur)
		{
			unsigned long long product = (unsigned long long)(*pLhsCur) * rhs + carry;
			*resultCur = (unsigned int)(product & bitmask_u64(32));
			carry = product >> 32;
		}

		/* if there is a remaining carry, grow the array */
		if (carry != 0)
		{
			/* grow the array */
			*resultCur = (unsigned int)carry;
			result->length = lhs->length + 1;
		}
		else
		{
			result->length = lhs->length;
		}
	}

	/* result = in * 2 */
	static void BigInt_Multiply2(BigInt* result, const BigInt* in)
	{
		/* shift all the blocks by one */
		unsigned int carry = 0;

		unsigned int* resultCur = result->blocks;
		const unsigned int* pLhsCur = in->blocks;
		const unsigned int* pLhsEnd = in->blocks + in->length;
		for (; pLhsCur != pLhsEnd; ++pLhsCur, ++resultCur)
		{
			unsigned int cur = *pLhsCur;
			*resultCur = (cur << 1) | carry;
			carry = cur >> 31;
		}

		if (carry != 0)
		{
			/* grow the array */
			*resultCur = carry;
			result->length = in->length + 1;
		}
		else
		{
			result->length = in->length;
		}
	}

	/* result = result * 2 */
	static void BigInt_Multiply2_inplace(BigInt* result)
	{
		/* shift all the blocks by one */
		unsigned int carry = 0;

		unsigned int* cur = result->blocks;
		unsigned int* end = result->blocks + result->length;
		for (; cur != end; ++cur)
		{
			unsigned int tmpcur = *cur;
			*cur = (tmpcur << 1) | carry;
			carry = tmpcur >> 31;
		}

		if (carry != 0)
		{
			/* grow the array */
			*cur = carry;
			++result->length;
		}
	}

	/* result = result * 10 */
	static void BigInt_Multiply10(BigInt* result)
	{
		/* multiply all the blocks */
		unsigned long long carry = 0;

		unsigned int* cur = result->blocks;
		unsigned int* end = result->blocks + result->length;
		for (; cur != end; ++cur)
		{
			unsigned long long product = (unsigned long long)(*cur) * 10ull + carry;
			(*cur) = (unsigned int)(product & bitmask_u64(32));
			carry = product >> 32;
		}

		if (carry != 0)
		{
			/* grow the array */
			*cur = (unsigned int)carry;
			++result->length;
		}
	}

	static unsigned int g_PowerOf10_U32[] =
	{
		1,		  /* 10 ^ 0 */
		10,		 /* 10 ^ 1 */
		100,		/* 10 ^ 2 */
		1000,	   /* 10 ^ 3 */
		10000,	  /* 10 ^ 4 */
		100000,	 /* 10 ^ 5 */
		1000000,	/* 10 ^ 6 */
		10000000,   /* 10 ^ 7 */
	};


	// * Note: This has a lot of wasted space in the big integer structures of the
	// *	   early table entries. It wouldn't be terribly hard to make the multiply
	// *	   function work on integer pointers with an array length instead of
	// *	   the BigInt struct which would allow us to store a minimal amount of
	// *	   data here.
	// */
	static BigInt g_PowerOf10_Big[] =
	{
		/* 10 ^ 8 */
		{ 1, { 100000000 } },
		/* 10 ^ 16 */
		{ 2, { 0x6fc10000, 0x002386f2 } },
		/* 10 ^ 32 */
		{ 4, { 0x00000000, 0x85acef81, 0x2d6d415b, 0x000004ee, } },
		/* 10 ^ 64 */
		{ 7, { 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0xbf6a1f01, 0x6e38ed64, 0xdaa797ed,
			   0xe93ff9f4, 0x00184f03, } },
		/* 10 ^ 128 */
		{ 14, { 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x2e953e01,
				0x03df9909, 0x0f1538fd, 0x2374e42f, 0xd3cff5ec, 0xc404dc08,
				0xbccdb0da, 0xa6337f19, 0xe91f2603, 0x0000024e, } },
		/* 10 ^ 256 */
		{ 27, { 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x982e7c01, 0xbed3875b,
				0xd8d99f72, 0x12152f87, 0x6bde50c6, 0xcf4a6e70, 0xd595d80f,
				0x26b2716e, 0xadc666b0, 0x1d153624, 0x3c42d35a, 0x63ff540e,
				0xcc5573c0, 0x65f9ef17, 0x55bc28f2, 0x80dcc7f7, 0xf46eeddc,
				0x5fdcefce, 0x000553f7, } },
		/* 10 ^ 512 */
		{ 54, { 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0xfc6cf801, 0x77f27267, 0x8f9546dc, 0x5d96976f,
				0xb83a8a97, 0xc31e1ad9, 0x46c40513, 0x94e65747, 0xc88976c1,
				0x4475b579, 0x28f8733b, 0xaa1da1bf, 0x703ed321, 0x1e25cfea,
				0xb21a2f22, 0xbc51fb2e, 0x96e14f5d, 0xbfa3edac, 0x329c57ae,
				0xe7fc7153, 0xc3fc0695, 0x85a91924, 0xf95f635e, 0xb2908ee0,
				0x93abade4, 0x1366732a, 0x9449775c, 0x69be5b0e, 0x7343afac,
				0xb099bc81, 0x45a71d46, 0xa2699748, 0x8cb07303, 0x8a0b1f13,
				0x8cab8a97, 0xc1d238d9, 0x633415d4, 0x0000001c, } },
		/* 10 ^ 1024 */
		{ 107, { 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x2919f001, 0xf55b2b72, 0x6e7c215b,
				0x1ec29f86, 0x991c4e87, 0x15c51a88, 0x140ac535, 0x4c7d1e1a,
				0xcc2cd819, 0x0ed1440e, 0x896634ee, 0x7de16cfb, 0x1e43f61f,
				0x9fce837d, 0x231d2b9c, 0x233e55c7, 0x65dc60d7, 0xf451218b,
				0x1c5cd134, 0xc9635986, 0x922bbb9f, 0xa7e89431, 0x9f9f2a07,
				0x62be695a, 0x8e1042c4, 0x045b7a74, 0x1abe1de3, 0x8ad822a5,
				0xba34c411, 0xd814b505, 0xbf3fdeb3, 0x8fc51a16, 0xb1b896bc,
				0xf56deeec, 0x31fb6bfd, 0xb6f4654b, 0x101a3616, 0x6b7595fb,
				0xdc1a47fe, 0x80d98089, 0x80bda5a5, 0x9a202882, 0x31eb0f66,
				0xfc8f1f90, 0x976a3310, 0xe26a7b7e, 0xdf68368a, 0x3ce3a0b8,
				0x8e4262ce, 0x75a351a2, 0x6cb0b6c9, 0x44597583, 0x31b5653f,
				0xc356e38a, 0x35faaba6, 0x0190fba0, 0x9fc4ed52, 0x88bc491b,
				0x1640114a, 0x005b8041, 0xf4f3235e, 0x1e8d4649, 0x36a8de06,
				0x73c55349, 0xa7e6bd2a, 0xc1a6970c, 0x47187094, 0xd2db49ef,
				0x926c3f5b, 0xae6209d4, 0x2d433949, 0x34f4a3c6, 0xd4305d94,
				0xd9d61a05, 0x00000325, } },
		/* 10 ^ 2048 */
		{ 213, { 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x1333e001,
				0xe3096865, 0xb27d4d3f, 0x49e28dcf, 0xec2e4721, 0xee87e354,
				0xb6067584, 0x368b8abb, 0xa5e5a191, 0x2ed56d55, 0xfd827773,
				0xea50d142, 0x51b78db2, 0x98342c9e, 0xc850dabc, 0x866ed6f1,
				0x19342c12, 0x92794987, 0xd2f869c2, 0x66912e4a, 0x71c7fd8f,
				0x57a7842d, 0x235552eb, 0xfb7fedcc, 0xf3861ce0, 0x38209ce1,
				0x9713b449, 0x34c10134, 0x8c6c54de, 0xa7a8289c, 0x2dbb6643,
				0xe3cb64f3, 0x8074ff01, 0xe3892ee9, 0x10c17f94, 0xa8f16f92,
				0xa8281ed6, 0x967abbb3, 0x5a151440, 0x9952fbed, 0x13b41e44,
				0xafe609c3, 0xa2bca416, 0xf111821f, 0xfb1264b4, 0x91bac974,
				0xd6c7d6ab, 0x8e48ff35, 0x4419bd43, 0xc4a65665, 0x685e5510,
				0x33554c36, 0xab498697, 0x0dbd21fe, 0x3cfe491d, 0x982da466,
				0xcbea4ca7, 0x9e110c7b, 0x79c56b8a, 0x5fc5a047, 0x84d80e2e,
				0x1aa9f444, 0x730f203c, 0x6a57b1ab, 0xd752f7a6, 0x87a7dc62,
				0x944545ff, 0x40660460, 0x77c1a42f, 0xc9ac375d, 0xe866d7ef,
				0x744695f0, 0x81428c85, 0xa1fc6b96, 0xd7917c7b, 0x7bf03c19,
				0x5b33eb41, 0x5715f791, 0x8f6cae5f, 0xdb0708fd, 0xb125ac8e,
				0x785ce6b7, 0x56c6815b, 0x6f46eadb, 0x4eeebeee, 0x195355d8,
				0xa244de3c, 0x9d7389c0, 0x53761abd, 0xcf99d019, 0xde9ec24b,
				0x0d76ce39, 0x70beb181, 0x2e55ecee, 0xd5f86079, 0xf56d9d4b,
				0xfb8886fb, 0x13ef5a83, 0x408f43c5, 0x3f3389a4, 0xfad37943,
				0x58ccf45c, 0xf82df846, 0x415c7f3e, 0x2915e818, 0x8b3d5cf4,
				0x6a445f27, 0xf8dbb57a, 0xca8f0070, 0x8ad803ec, 0xb2e87c34,
				0x038f9245, 0xbedd8a6c, 0xc7c9dee0, 0x0eac7d56, 0x2ad3fa14,
				0xe0de0840, 0xf775677c, 0xf1bd0ad5, 0x92be221e, 0x87fa1fb9,
				0xce9d04a4, 0xd2c36fa9, 0x3f6f7024, 0xb028af62, 0x907855ee,
				0xd83e49d6, 0x4efac5dc, 0xe7151aab, 0x77cd8c6b, 0x0a753b7d,
				0x0af908b4, 0x8c983623, 0xe50f3027, 0x94222771, 0x1d08e2d6,
				0xf7e928e6, 0xf2ee5ca6, 0x1b61b93c, 0x11eb962b, 0x9648b21c,
				0xce2bcba1, 0x34f77154, 0x7bbebe30, 0xe526a319, 0x8ce329ac,
				0xde4a74d2, 0xb5dc53d5, 0x0009e8b3, } },
		/* 10 ^ 4096 */
		{ 426, { 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000,
				0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x2a67c001, 0xd4724e8d,
				0x8efe7ae7, 0xf89a1e90, 0xef084117, 0x54e05154, 0x13b1bb51,
				0x506be829, 0xfb29b172, 0xe599574e, 0xf0da6146, 0x806c0ed3,
				0xb86ae5be, 0x45155e93, 0xc0591cc2, 0x7e1e7c34, 0x7c4823da,
				0x1d1f4cce, 0x9b8ba1e8, 0xd6bfdf75, 0xe341be10, 0xc2dfae78,
				0x016b67b2, 0x0f237f1a, 0x3dbeabcd, 0xaf6a2574, 0xcab3e6d7,
				0x142e0e80, 0x61959127, 0x2c234811, 0x87009701, 0xcb4bf982,
				0xf8169c84, 0x88052f8c, 0x68dde6d4, 0xbc131761, 0xff0b0905,
				0x54ab9c41, 0x7613b224, 0x1a1c304e, 0x3bfe167b, 0x441c2d47,
				0x4f6cea9c, 0x78f06181, 0xeb659fb8, 0x30c7ae41, 0x947e0d0e,
				0xa1ebcad7, 0xd97d9556, 0x2130504d, 0x1a8309cb, 0xf2acd507,
				0x3f8ec72a, 0xfd82373a, 0x95a842bc, 0x280f4d32, 0xf3618ac0,
				0x811a4f04, 0x6dc3a5b4, 0xd3967a1b, 0x15b8c898, 0xdcfe388f,
				0x454eb2a0, 0x8738b909, 0x10c4e996, 0x2bd9cc11, 0x3297cd0c,
				0x655fec30, 0xae0725b1, 0xf4090ee8, 0x037d19ee, 0x398c6fed,
				0x3b9af26b, 0xc994a450, 0xb5341743, 0x75a697b2, 0xac50b9c1,
				0x3ccb5b92, 0xffe06205, 0xa8329761, 0xdfea5242, 0xeb83cadb,
				0xe79dadf7, 0x3c20ee69, 0x1e0a6817, 0x7021b97a, 0x743074fa,
				0x176ca776, 0x77fb8af6, 0xeca19beb, 0x92baf1de, 0xaf63b712,
				0xde35c88b, 0xa4eb8f8c, 0xe137d5e9, 0x40b464a0, 0x87d1cde8,
				0x42923bbd, 0xcd8f62ff, 0x2e2690f3, 0x095edc16, 0x59c89f1b,
				0x1fa8fd5d, 0x5138753d, 0x390a2b29, 0x80152f18, 0x2dd8d925,
				0xf984d83e, 0x7a872e74, 0xc19e1faf, 0xed4d542d, 0xecf9b5d0,
				0x9462ea75, 0xc53c0adf, 0x0caea134, 0x37a2d439, 0xc8fa2e8a,
				0x2181327e, 0x6e7bb827, 0x2d240820, 0x50be10e0, 0x5893d4b8,
				0xab312bb9, 0x1f2b2322, 0x440b3f25, 0xbf627ede, 0x72dac789,
				0xb608b895, 0x78787e2a, 0x86deb3f0, 0x6fee7aab, 0xbb9373f4,
				0x27ecf57b, 0xf7d8b57e, 0xfca26a9f, 0x3d04e8d2, 0xc9df13cb,
				0x3172826a, 0xcd9e8d7c, 0xa8fcd8e0, 0xb2c39497, 0x307641d9,
				0x1cc939c1, 0x2608c4cf, 0xb6d1c7bf, 0x3d326a7e, 0xeeaf19e6,
				0x8e13e25f, 0xee63302b, 0x2dfe6d97, 0x25971d58, 0xe41d3cc4,
				0x0a80627c, 0xab8db59a, 0x9eea37c8, 0xe90afb77, 0x90ca19cf,
				0x9ee3352c, 0x3613c850, 0xfe78d682, 0x788f6e50, 0x5b060904,
				0xb71bd1a4, 0x3fecb534, 0xb32c450c, 0x20c33857, 0xa6e9cfda,
				0x0239f4ce, 0x48497187, 0xa19adb95, 0xb492ed8a, 0x95aca6a8,
				0x4dcd6cd9, 0xcf1b2350, 0xfbe8b12a, 0x1a67778c, 0x38eb3acc,
				0xc32da383, 0xfb126ab1, 0xa03f40a8, 0xed5bf546, 0xe9ce4724,
				0x4c4a74fd, 0x73a130d8, 0xd9960e2d, 0xa2ebd6c1, 0x94ab6feb,
				0x6f233b7c, 0x49126080, 0x8e7b9a73, 0x4b8c9091, 0xd298f999,
				0x35e836b5, 0xa96ddeff, 0x96119b31, 0x6b0dd9bc, 0xc6cc3f8d,
				0x282566fb, 0x72b882e7, 0xd6769f3b, 0xa674343d, 0x00fc509b,
				0xdcbf7789, 0xd6266a3f, 0xae9641fd, 0x4e89541b, 0x11953407,
				0x53400d03, 0x8e0dd75a, 0xe5b53345, 0x108f19ad, 0x108b89bc,
				0x41a4c954, 0xe03b2b63, 0x437b3d7f, 0x97aced8e, 0xcbd66670,
				0x2c5508c2, 0x650ebc69, 0x5c4f2ef0, 0x904ff6bf, 0x9985a2df,
				0x9faddd9e, 0x5ed8d239, 0x25585832, 0xe3e51cb9, 0x0ff4f1d4,
				0x56c02d9a, 0x8c4ef804, 0xc1a08a13, 0x13fd01c8, 0xe6d27671,
				0xa7c234f4, 0x9d0176cc, 0xd0d73df2, 0x4d8bfa89, 0x544f10cd,
				0x2b17e0b2, 0xb70a5c7d, 0xfd86fe49, 0xdf373f41, 0x214495bb,
				0x84e857fd, 0x00d313d5, 0x0496fcbe, 0xa4ba4744, 0xe8cac982,
				0xaec29e6e, 0x87ec7038, 0x7000a519, 0xaeee333b, 0xff66e42c,
				0x8afd6b25, 0x03b4f63b, 0xbd7991dc, 0x5ab8d9c7, 0x2ed4684e,
				0x48741a6c, 0xaf06940d, 0x2fdc6349, 0xb03d7ecd, 0xe974996f,
				0xac7867f9, 0x52ec8721, 0xbcdd9d4a, 0x8edd2d00, 0x3557de06,
				0x41c759f8, 0x3956d4b9, 0xa75409f2, 0x123cd8a1, 0xb6100fab,
				0x3e7b21e2, 0x2e8d623b, 0x92959da2, 0xbca35f77, 0x200c03a5,
				0x35fcb457, 0x1bb6c6e4, 0xf74eb928, 0x3d5d0b54, 0x87cc1d21,
				0x4964046f, 0x18ae4240, 0xd868b275, 0x8bd2b496, 0x1c5563f4,
				0xc234d8f5, 0xf868e970, 0xf9151fff, 0xae7be4a2, 0x271133ee,
				0xbb0fd922, 0x25254932, 0xa60a9fc0, 0x104bcd64, 0x30290145,
				0x00000062, } }
	};

	/* result = 10^exponent */
	static void BigInt_Pow10(BigInt* result, unsigned int exponent, BigInt* temp)
	{
		/* use two temporary values to reduce large integer copy operations */
		BigInt* curTemp = result;
		BigInt* pNextTemp = temp;
		unsigned int smallExponent;
		unsigned int tableIdx = 0;


		// * initialize the result by looking up a 32-bit power of 10 corresponding to
		// * the first 3 bits
		// */
		smallExponent = exponent & bitmask_u32(3);
		BigInt_Set_uint32(curTemp, g_PowerOf10_U32[smallExponent]);

		/* remove the low bits that we used for the 32-bit lookup table */
		exponent >>= 3;

		/* while there are remaining bits in the exponent to be processed */
		while (exponent != 0)
		{
			/* if the current bit is set, multiply by this power of 10 */
			if (exponent & 1)
			{
				BigInt* pSwap;

				/* multiply into the next temporary */
				BigInt_Multiply(pNextTemp, curTemp, &g_PowerOf10_Big[tableIdx]);

				/* swap to the next temporary */
				pSwap = curTemp;
				curTemp = pNextTemp;
				pNextTemp = pSwap;
			}

			/* advance to the next bit */
			++tableIdx;
			exponent >>= 1;
		}

		/* output the result */
		if (curTemp != result)
		{
			BigInt_Copy(result, curTemp);
		}
	}

	/* in = in * 10^exponent */
	static void BigInt_MultiplyPow10(BigInt* in, unsigned int exponent, BigInt* temp)
	{
		/* use two temporary values to reduce large integer copy operations */
		BigInt* curTemp, * pNextTemp;
		unsigned int smallExponent;
		unsigned int tableIdx = 0;


		// * initialize the result by looking up a 32-bit power of 10 corresponding to
		// * the first 3 bits
		// */
		smallExponent = exponent & bitmask_u32(3);
		if (smallExponent != 0)
		{
			BigInt_Multiply_int(temp, in, g_PowerOf10_U32[smallExponent]);
			curTemp = temp;
			pNextTemp = in;
		}
		else
		{
			curTemp = in;
			pNextTemp = temp;
		}

		/* remove the low bits that we used for the 32-bit lookup table */
		exponent >>= 3;

		/* while there are remaining bits in the exponent to be processed */
		while (exponent != 0)
		{
			/* if the current bit is set, multiply by this power of 10 */
			if (exponent & 1)
			{
				BigInt* pSwap;

				/* multiply into the next temporary */
				BigInt_Multiply(pNextTemp, curTemp, &g_PowerOf10_Big[tableIdx]);

				/* swap to the next temporary */
				pSwap = curTemp;
				curTemp = pNextTemp;
				pNextTemp = pSwap;
			}

			/* advance to the next bit */
			++tableIdx;
			exponent >>= 1;
		}

		/* output the result */
		if (curTemp != in) {
			BigInt_Copy(in, curTemp);
		}
	}

	/* result = 2^exponent */
	static inline void BigInt_Pow2(BigInt* result, const unsigned int exponent)
	{
		unsigned int bitIdx;
		unsigned int blockIdx = exponent >> 5;
		unsigned int i;

		for (i = 0; i <= blockIdx; ++i)
		{
			result->blocks[i] = 0;
		}

		result->length = blockIdx + 1;

		bitIdx = exponent - (blockIdx << 5);
		result->blocks[blockIdx] |= ((unsigned int)1 << bitIdx);
	}


	// * This function will divide two large numbers under the assumption that the
	// * result is within the range [0,10) and the input numbers have been shifted
	// * to satisfy:
	// * - The highest block of the divisor is greater than or equal to 8 such that
	// *   there is enough precision to make an accurate first guess at the quotient.
	// * - The highest block of the divisor is less than the maximum value on an
	// *   unsigned 32-bit integer such that we can safely increment without overflow.
	// * - The dividend does not contain more blocks than the divisor such that we
	// *   can estimate the quotient by dividing the equivalently placed high blocks.
	// *
	// * quotient  = floor(dividend / divisor)
	// * remainder = dividend - quotient*divisor
	// *
	// * dividend is updated to be the remainder and the quotient is returned.
	// */
	static unsigned int BigInt_DivideWithRemainder_MaxQuotient9(BigInt* dividend, const BigInt* divisor)
	{
		unsigned int length, quotient;
		const unsigned int* finalDivisorBlock;
		unsigned int* finalDividendBlock;


		// * If the dividend is smaller than the divisor, the quotient is zero and the
		// * divisor is already the remainder.
		// */
		length = divisor->length;
		if (dividend->length < divisor->length)
		{
			return 0;
		}

		finalDivisorBlock = divisor->blocks + length - 1;
		finalDividendBlock = dividend->blocks + length - 1;


		// * Compute an estimated quotient based on the high block value. This will
		// * either match the actual quotient or undershoot by one.
		// */
		quotient = *finalDividendBlock / (*finalDivisorBlock + 1);

		/* Divide out the estimated quotient */
		if (quotient != 0)
		{
			/* dividend = dividend - divisor*quotient */
			const unsigned int* divisorCur = divisor->blocks;
			unsigned int* dividendCur = dividend->blocks;

			unsigned long long borrow = 0;
			unsigned long long carry = 0;
			do {
				unsigned long long difference, product;

				product = (unsigned long long) * divisorCur * (unsigned long long)quotient + carry;
				carry = product >> 32;

				difference = (unsigned long long) * dividendCur
					- (product & bitmask_u64(32)) - borrow;
				borrow = (difference >> 32) & 1;

				*dividendCur = difference & bitmask_u64(32);

				++divisorCur;
				++dividendCur;
			} while (divisorCur <= finalDivisorBlock);

			/* remove all leading zero blocks from dividend */
			while (length > 0 && dividend->blocks[length - 1] == 0)
			{
				--length;
			}

			dividend->length = length;
		}


		// * If the dividend is still larger than the divisor, we overshot our
		// * estimate quotient. To correct, we increment the quotient and subtract one
		// * more divisor from the dividend.
		// */
		if (BigInt_Compare(dividend, divisor) >= 0)
		{
			/* dividend = dividend - divisor */
			const unsigned int* divisorCur = divisor->blocks;
			unsigned int* dividendCur = dividend->blocks;
			unsigned long long borrow = 0;

			++quotient;

			do {
				unsigned long long difference = (unsigned long long) * dividendCur
					- (unsigned long long) * divisorCur - borrow;
				borrow = (difference >> 32) & 1;

				*dividendCur = difference & bitmask_u64(32);

				++divisorCur;
				++dividendCur;
			} while (divisorCur <= finalDivisorBlock);

			/* remove all leading zero blocks from dividend */
			while (length > 0 && dividend->blocks[length - 1] == 0)
			{
				--length;
			}

			dividend->length = length;
		}

		return quotient;
	}

	/* result = result << shift */
	static void BigInt_ShiftLeft(BigInt* result, unsigned int shift)
	{
		unsigned int shiftBlocks = shift >> 5;
		unsigned int shiftBits = shift - (shiftBlocks << 5);

		/* process blocks high to low so that we can safely process in place */
		const unsigned int* pInBlocks = result->blocks;
		int inLength = result->length;
		unsigned int* pInCur, * pOutCur;

		/* check if the shift is block aligned */
		if (shiftBits == 0)
		{
			unsigned int i;

			/* copy blocks from high to low */
			for (pInCur = result->blocks + result->length,
				pOutCur = pInCur + shiftBlocks;
				pInCur >= pInBlocks;
				--pInCur, --pOutCur)
			{
				*pOutCur = *pInCur;
			}

			/* zero the remaining low blocks */
			for (i = 0; i < shiftBlocks; ++i)
			{
				result->blocks[i] = 0;
			}

			result->length += shiftBlocks;
		}
		/* else we need to shift partial blocks */
		else
		{
			unsigned int i;
			int inBlockIdx = inLength - 1;
			unsigned int outBlockIdx = inLength + shiftBlocks;

			/* output the initial blocks */
			const unsigned int lowBitsShift = (32 - shiftBits);
			unsigned int highBits = 0;
			unsigned int block = result->blocks[inBlockIdx];
			unsigned int lowBits = block >> lowBitsShift;

			/* set the length to hold the shifted blocks */
			result->length = outBlockIdx + 1;

			while (inBlockIdx > 0)
			{
				result->blocks[outBlockIdx] = highBits | lowBits;
				highBits = block << shiftBits;

				--inBlockIdx;
				--outBlockIdx;

				block = result->blocks[inBlockIdx];
				lowBits = block >> lowBitsShift;
			}

			/* output the final blocks */
			result->blocks[outBlockIdx] = highBits | lowBits;
			result->blocks[outBlockIdx - 1] = block << shiftBits;

			/* zero the remaining low blocks */
			for (i = 0; i < shiftBlocks; ++i)
			{
				result->blocks[i] = 0;
			}

			/* check if the terminating block has no set bits */
			if (result->blocks[result->length - 1] == 0)
			{
				--result->length;
			}
		}
	}



	// * This is an implementation the Dragon4 algorithm to convert a binary number in
	// * floating point format to a decimal number in string format. The function
	// * returns the number of digits written to the output buffer and the output is
	// * not NUL terminated.
	// *
	// * The floating point input value is (mantissa// * 2^exponent).
	// *
	// * See the following papers for more information on the algorithm:
	// *  "How to Print Floating-Point Numbers Accurately"
	// *	Steele and White
	// *	http://kurtstephens.com/files/p372-steele.pdf
	// *  "Printing Floating-Point Numbers Quickly and Accurately"
	// *	Burger and Dybvig
	// *	http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.72.4656
	// *
	// * This implementation is essentially a port of the "Figure 3" Scheme code from
	// * Burger and Dybvig, but with the following additional differences:
	// *   1. Instead of finding the highest k such that high < B**k, we search
	// *	  for the one where v < B**k. This has a downside that if a power
	// *	  of 10 exists between v and high, we will output a 9 instead of a 1 as
	// *	  first digit, violating the "no-carry" guarantee of the paper. This is
	// *	  accounted for in a new post-processing loop which implements a carry
	// *	  operation. The upside is one less BigInt multiplication.
	// *   2. The approximate value of k found is offset by a different amount
	// *	  (0.69), in order to hit the "fast" branch more often. This is
	// *	  extensively described on Ryan Juckett's website.
	// *   3. The fixed precision mode is much simpler than proposed in the paper.
	// *	  It simply outputs digits by repeatedly dividing by 10. The new "carry"
	// *	  loop at the end rounds this output nicely.
	// *  There is also some new code to account for details of the BigInt
	// *  implementation, which are not present in the paper since it does not specify
	// *  details of the integer calculations.
	// *
	// * There is some more documentation of these changes on Ryan Juckett's website
	// * at http://www.ryanjuckett.com/programming/printing-floating-point-numbers/
	// *
	// * This code also has a few implementation differences from Ryan Juckett's
	// * version:
	// *  1. fixed overflow problems when mantissa was 64 bits (in float128 types),
	// *	 by replacing multiplication by 2 or 4 by BigInt_ShiftLeft calls.
	// *  2. Increased c_BigInt_MaxBlocks, for 128-bit floats
	// *  3. Added more entries to the g_PowerOf10_Big table, for 128-bit floats.
	// *  4. Added unbiased rounding calculation with isEven. Ryan Juckett's
	// *	 implementation did not implement "IEEE unbiased rounding", except in the
	// *	 last digit. This has been added back, following the Burger & Dybvig
	// *	 code, using the isEven variable.
	// *
	// * Arguments:
	// *  * bigints - memory to store all bigints needed (7) for dragon4 computation.
	// *			   The first BigInt should be filled in with the mantissa.
	// *  * exponent - value exponent in base 2
	// *  * mantissaBit - index of the highest set mantissa bit
	// *  * hasUnequalMargins - is the high margin twice as large as the low margin
	// *  * cutoffMode - how to interpret cutoff_*: fractional or total digits?
	// *  * cutoff_max - cut off printing after this many digits. -1 for no cutoff
	// *  * cutoff_min - print at least this many digits. -1 for no cutoff
	// *  * pOutBuffer - buffer to output into
	// *  * bufferSize - maximum characters that can be printed to pOutBuffer
	// *  * pOutExponent - the base 10 exponent of the first digit
	// *
	// * Returns the number of digits written to the output buffer.
	// */
	static unsigned int Dragon4(BigInt* bigints, const int exponent,
		const unsigned int mantissaBit, const int hasUnequalMargins,
		const DigitMode digitMode, const CutoffMode cutoffMode,
		int cutoff_max, int cutoff_min, char* pOutBuffer,
		unsigned int bufferSize, int* pOutExponent)
	{
		char* curDigit = pOutBuffer;


		// * We compute values in integer format by rescaling as
		// *   mantissa = scaledValue / scale
		// *   marginLow = scaledMarginLow / scale
		// *   marginHigh = scaledMarginHigh / scale
		// * Here, marginLow and marginHigh represent 1/2 of the distance to the next
		// * floating point value above/below the mantissa.
		// *
		// * scaledMarginHigh will point to scaledMarginLow in the case they must be
		// * equal to each other, otherwise it will point to optionalMarginHigh.
		// */
		BigInt* mantissa = &bigints[0];  /* the only initialized bigint */
		BigInt* scale = &bigints[1];
		BigInt* scaledValue = &bigints[2];
		BigInt* scaledMarginLow = &bigints[3];
		BigInt* scaledMarginHigh;
		BigInt* optionalMarginHigh = &bigints[4];

		BigInt* temp1 = &bigints[5];
		BigInt* temp2 = &bigints[6];

		const double log10_2 = 0.30102999566398119521373889472449;
		int digitExponent, hiBlock;
		int cutoff_max_Exponent, cutoff_min_Exponent;
		unsigned int outputDigit;	/* current digit being output */
		unsigned int outputLen;
		int isEven = BigInt_IsEven(mantissa);
		int cmp;

		/* values used to determine how to round */
		int low, high, roundDown;

		/* if the mantissa is zero, the value is zero regardless of the exponent */
		if (BigInt_IsZero(mantissa))
		{
			*curDigit = '0';
			*pOutExponent = 0;
			return 1;
		}

		BigInt_Copy(scaledValue, mantissa);

		if (hasUnequalMargins)
		{
			/* if we have no fractional component */
			if (exponent > 0)
			{

				// * 1) Expand the input value by multiplying out the mantissa and
				// *	exponent. This represents the input value in its whole number
				// *	representation.
				// * 2) Apply an additional scale of 2 such that later comparisons
				// *	against the margin values are simplified.
				// * 3) Set the margin value to the lowest mantissa bit's scale.
				// */

				/* scaledValue	  = 2 * 2 * mantissa*2^exponent */
				BigInt_ShiftLeft(scaledValue, exponent + 2);
				/* scale			= 2 * 2 * 1 */
				BigInt_Set_uint32(scale, 4);
				/* scaledMarginLow  = 2 * 2^(exponent-1) */
				BigInt_Pow2(scaledMarginLow, exponent);
				/* scaledMarginHigh = 2 * 2 * 2^(exponent-1) */
				BigInt_Pow2(optionalMarginHigh, exponent + 1);
			}
			/* else we have a fractional exponent */
			else
			{

				// * In order to track the mantissa data as an integer, we store it as
				// * is with a large scale
				// */

				/* scaledValue	  = 2 * 2 * mantissa */
				BigInt_ShiftLeft(scaledValue, 2);
				/* scale			= 2 * 2 * 2^(-exponent) */
				BigInt_Pow2(scale, -exponent + 2);
				/* scaledMarginLow  = 2 * 2^(-1) */
				BigInt_Set_uint32(scaledMarginLow, 1);
				/* scaledMarginHigh = 2 * 2 * 2^(-1) */
				BigInt_Set_uint32(optionalMarginHigh, 2);
			}

			/* the high and low margins are different */
			scaledMarginHigh = optionalMarginHigh;
		}
		else
		{
			/* if we have no fractional component */
			if (exponent > 0)
			{
				/* scaledValue	 = 2 * mantissa*2^exponent */
				BigInt_ShiftLeft(scaledValue, exponent + 1);
				/* scale		   = 2 * 1 */
				BigInt_Set_uint32(scale, 2);
				/* scaledMarginLow = 2 * 2^(exponent-1) */
				BigInt_Pow2(scaledMarginLow, exponent);
			}
			/* else we have a fractional exponent */
			else
			{

				// * In order to track the mantissa data as an integer, we store it as
				// * is with a large scale
				// */

				/* scaledValue	 = 2 * mantissa */
				BigInt_ShiftLeft(scaledValue, 1);
				/* scale		   = 2 * 2^(-exponent) */
				BigInt_Pow2(scale, -exponent + 1);
				/* scaledMarginLow = 2 * 2^(-1) */
				BigInt_Set_uint32(scaledMarginLow, 1);
			}

			/* the high and low margins are equal */
			scaledMarginHigh = scaledMarginLow;
		}


		// * Compute an estimate for digitExponent that will be correct or undershoot
		// * by one.  This optimization is based on the paper "Printing Floating-Point
		// * Numbers Quickly and Accurately" by Burger and Dybvig
		// * http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.72.4656
		// * We perform an additional subtraction of 0.69 to increase the frequency of
		// * a failed estimate because that lets us take a faster branch in the code.
		// * 0.69 is chosen because 0.69 + log10(2) is less than one by a reasonable
		// * epsilon that will account for any floating point error.
		// *
		// * We want to set digitExponent to floor(log10(v)) + 1
		// *  v = mantissa*2^exponent
		// *  log2(v) = log2(mantissa) + exponent;
		// *  log10(v) = log2(v) * log10(2)
		// *  floor(log2(v)) = mantissaBit + exponent;
		// *  log10(v) - log10(2) < (mantissaBit + exponent) * log10(2) <= log10(v)
		// *  log10(v) < (mantissaBit + exponent) * log10(2) + log10(2)
		// *												 <= log10(v) + log10(2)
		// *  floor(log10(v)) < ceil((mantissaBit + exponent) * log10(2))
		// *												 <= floor(log10(v)) + 1
		// *
		// *  Warning: This calculation assumes double is an IEEE-binary64
		// *  float. This line may need to be updated if this is not the case.
		// */
		digitExponent = (int)CEIL(((int)mantissaBit + exponent) * log10_2 - 0.69);


		// * if the digit exponent is smaller than the smallest desired digit for
		// * fractional cutoff, pull the digit back into legal range at which point we
		// * will round to the appropriate value.  Note that while our value for
		// * digitExponent is still an estimate, this is safe because it only
		// * increases the number. This will either correct digitExponent to an
		// * accurate value or it will clamp it above the accurate value.
		// */
		if (cutoff_max >= 0 && cutoffMode == CutoffMode_FractionLength &&
			digitExponent <= -cutoff_max)
		{
			digitExponent = -cutoff_max + 1;
		}


		/* Divide value by 10^digitExponent. */
		if (digitExponent > 0)
		{
			/* A positive exponent creates a division so we multiply the scale. */
			BigInt_MultiplyPow10(scale, digitExponent, temp1);
		}
		else if (digitExponent < 0)
		{

			// * A negative exponent creates a multiplication so we multiply up the
			// * scaledValue, scaledMarginLow and scaledMarginHigh.
			// */
			BigInt* temp = temp1, * pow10 = temp2;
			BigInt_Pow10(pow10, -digitExponent, temp);

			BigInt_Multiply(temp, scaledValue, pow10);
			BigInt_Copy(scaledValue, temp);

			BigInt_Multiply(temp, scaledMarginLow, pow10);
			BigInt_Copy(scaledMarginLow, temp);

			if (scaledMarginHigh != scaledMarginLow)
			{
				BigInt_Multiply2(scaledMarginHigh, scaledMarginLow);
			}
		}

		/* If (value >= 1), our estimate for digitExponent was too low */
		if (BigInt_Compare(scaledValue, scale) >= 0)
		{

			// * The exponent estimate was incorrect.
			// * Increment the exponent and don't perform the premultiply needed
			// * for the first loop iteration.
			// */
			digitExponent = digitExponent + 1;
		}
		else
		{

			// * The exponent estimate was correct.
			// * Multiply larger by the output base to prepare for the first loop
			// * iteration.
			// */
			BigInt_Multiply10(scaledValue);
			BigInt_Multiply10(scaledMarginLow);
			if (scaledMarginHigh != scaledMarginLow)
			{
				BigInt_Multiply2(scaledMarginHigh, scaledMarginLow);
			}
		}


		// * Compute the cutoff_max exponent (the exponent of the final digit to
		// * print).  Default to the maximum size of the output buffer.
		// */
		cutoff_max_Exponent = digitExponent - bufferSize;
		if (cutoff_max >= 0)
		{
			int desiredCutoffExponent;

			if (cutoffMode == CutoffMode_TotalLength)
			{
				desiredCutoffExponent = digitExponent - cutoff_max;
				if (desiredCutoffExponent > cutoff_max_Exponent)
				{
					cutoff_max_Exponent = desiredCutoffExponent;
				}
			}
			/* Otherwise it's CutoffMode_FractionLength. Print cutoff_max digits
			// * past the decimal point or until we reach the buffer size
			// */
			else
			{
				desiredCutoffExponent = -cutoff_max;
				if (desiredCutoffExponent > cutoff_max_Exponent)
				{
					cutoff_max_Exponent = desiredCutoffExponent;
				}
			}
		}
		/* Also compute the cutoff_min exponent. */
		cutoff_min_Exponent = digitExponent;
		if (cutoff_min >= 0)
		{
			int desiredCutoffExponent;

			if (cutoffMode == CutoffMode_TotalLength)
			{
				desiredCutoffExponent = digitExponent - cutoff_min;
				if (desiredCutoffExponent < cutoff_min_Exponent)
				{
					cutoff_min_Exponent = desiredCutoffExponent;
				}
			}
			else
			{
				desiredCutoffExponent = -cutoff_min;
				if (desiredCutoffExponent < cutoff_min_Exponent)
				{
					cutoff_min_Exponent = desiredCutoffExponent;
				}
			}
		}

		/* Output the exponent of the first digit we will print */
		*pOutExponent = digitExponent - 1;


		// * In preparation for calling BigInt_DivideWithRemainder_MaxQuotient9(), we
		// * need to scale up our values such that the highest block of the
		// * denominator is greater than or equal to 8. We also need to guarantee that
		// * the numerator can never have a length greater than the denominator after
		// * each loop iteration.  This requires the highest block of the denominator
		// * to be less than or equal to 429496729 which is the highest number that
		// * can be multiplied by 10 without overflowing to a new block.
		// */
		hiBlock = scale->blocks[scale->length - 1];
		if (hiBlock < 8 || hiBlock > 429496729)
		{
			unsigned int hiBlockLog2, shift;


			// * Perform a bit shift on all values to get the highest block of the
			// * denominator into the range [8,429496729]. We are more likely to make
			// * accurate quotient estimations in
			// * BigInt_DivideWithRemainder_MaxQuotient9() with higher denominator
			// * values so we shift the denominator to place the highest bit at index
			// * 27 of the highest block.  This is safe because (2^28 - 1) = 268435455
			// * which is less than 429496729. This means that all values with a
			// * highest bit at index 27 are within range.
			// */
			hiBlockLog2 = LogBase2_32(hiBlock);
			shift = (32 + 27 - hiBlockLog2);
			shift = shift - (shift >> 5 << 5);

			BigInt_ShiftLeft(scale, shift);
			BigInt_ShiftLeft(scaledValue, shift);
			BigInt_ShiftLeft(scaledMarginLow, shift);
			if (scaledMarginHigh != scaledMarginLow)
			{
				BigInt_Multiply2(scaledMarginHigh, scaledMarginLow);
			}
		}

		if (digitMode == DigitMode_Unique)
		{

			// * For the unique cutoff mode, we will try to print until we have
			// * reached a level of precision that uniquely distinguishes this value
			// * from its neighbors. If we run out of space in the output buffer, we
			// * terminate early.
			// */
			for (;;)
			{
				BigInt* scaledValueHigh = temp1;

				digitExponent = digitExponent - 1;

				/* divide out the scale to extract the digit */
				outputDigit =
					BigInt_DivideWithRemainder_MaxQuotient9(scaledValue, scale);

				/* update the high end of the value */
				BigInt_Add(scaledValueHigh, scaledValue, scaledMarginHigh);


				// * stop looping if we are far enough away from our neighboring
				// * values (and we have printed at least the requested minimum
				// * digits) or if we have reached the cutoff digit
				// */
				cmp = BigInt_Compare(scaledValue, scaledMarginLow);
				low = isEven ? (cmp <= 0) : (cmp < 0);
				cmp = BigInt_Compare(scaledValueHigh, scale);
				high = isEven ? (cmp >= 0) : (cmp > 0);
				if (((low | high) & (digitExponent <= cutoff_min_Exponent)) | (digitExponent == cutoff_max_Exponent))
				{
					break;
				}

				/* store the output digit */
				*curDigit = (char)('0' + outputDigit);
				++curDigit;

				/* multiply larger by the output base */
				BigInt_Multiply10(scaledValue);
				BigInt_Multiply10(scaledMarginLow);
				if (scaledMarginHigh != scaledMarginLow)
				{
					BigInt_Multiply2(scaledMarginHigh, scaledMarginLow);
				}
			}
		}
		else
		{

			// * For exact digit mode, we will try to print until we
			// * have exhausted all precision (i.e. all remaining digits are zeros) or
			// * until we reach the desired cutoff digit.
			// */
			low = false;
			high = false;

			for (;;)
			{
				digitExponent = digitExponent - 1;

				/* divide out the scale to extract the digit */
				outputDigit =
					BigInt_DivideWithRemainder_MaxQuotient9(scaledValue, scale);

				if ((scaledValue->length == 0) | (digitExponent == cutoff_max_Exponent))
				{
					break;
				}

				/* store the output digit */
				*curDigit = (char)('0' + outputDigit);
				++curDigit;

				/* multiply larger by the output base */
				BigInt_Multiply10(scaledValue);
			}
		}

		/* default to rounding down the final digit if value got too close to 0 */
		roundDown = low;

		/* if it is legal to round up and down */
		if (low == high)
		{
			int compare;


			// * round to the closest digit by comparing value with 0.5. To do this we
			// * need to convert the inequality to large integer values.
			// *  compare( value, 0.5 )
			// *  compare( scale * value, scale * 0.5 )
			// *  compare( 2 * scale * value, scale )
			// */
			BigInt_Multiply2_inplace(scaledValue);
			compare = BigInt_Compare(scaledValue, scale);
			roundDown = compare < 0;


			// * if we are directly in the middle, round towards the even digit (i.e.
			// * IEEE rounding rules)
			// */
			if (compare == 0)
			{
				roundDown = (outputDigit & 1) == 0;
			}
		}

		/* print the rounded digit */
		if (roundDown)
		{
			*curDigit = (char)('0' + outputDigit);
			++curDigit;
		}
		else
		{
			/* handle rounding up */
			if (outputDigit == 9)
			{
				/* find the first non-nine prior digit */
				for (;;)
				{
					/* if we are at the first digit */
					if (curDigit == pOutBuffer)
					{
						/* output 1 at the next highest exponent */
						*curDigit = '1';
						++curDigit;
						*pOutExponent += 1;
						break;
					}

					--curDigit;
					if (*curDigit != '9')
					{
						/* increment the digit */
						*curDigit += 1;
						++curDigit;
						break;
					}
				}
			}
			else
			{
				/* values in the range [0,8] can perform a simple round up */
				*curDigit = (char)('0' + outputDigit + 1);
				++curDigit;
			}
		}

		/* return the number of digits output */
		outputLen = (unsigned int)(curDigit - pOutBuffer);

		return outputLen;
	}


	// * Outputs the positive number with positional notation: ddddd.dddd
	// * The output is always NUL terminated and the output length (not including the
	// * NUL) is returned.
	// *
	// * Arguments:
	// *	buffer - buffer to output into
	// *	bufferSize - maximum characters that can be printed to buffer
	// *	mantissa - value significand
	// *	exponent - value exponent in base 2
	// *	signbit - value of the sign position. Should be '+', '-' or ''
	// *	mantissaBit - index of the highest set mantissa bit
	// *	hasUnequalMargins - is the high margin twice as large as the low margin
	// *
	// * See dragon4::Options for description of remaining arguments.
	// */
	static unsigned int FormatPositional(char* buffer, unsigned int bufferSize, BigInt* mantissa,
		int exponent, char signbit, unsigned int mantissaBit,
		int hasUnequalMargins, DigitMode digit_mode,
		CutoffMode cutoff_mode, int precision,
		int min_digits, TrimMode trim_mode,
		int digits_left, int digits_right)
	{
		int printExponent;
		int numDigits, numWholeDigits = 0, has_sign = 0;
		int add_digits;

		int maxPrintLen = (int)bufferSize - 1, pos = 0;

		/* track the # of digits past the decimal point that have been printed */
		int numFractionDigits = 0, desiredFractionalDigits;

		if (signbit == '+' && pos < maxPrintLen)
		{
			buffer[pos++] = '+';
			has_sign = 1;
		}
		else if (signbit == '-' && pos < maxPrintLen)
		{
			buffer[pos++] = '-';
			has_sign = 1;
		}

		numDigits = Dragon4(mantissa, exponent, mantissaBit, hasUnequalMargins,
			digit_mode, cutoff_mode, precision, min_digits,
			buffer + has_sign, maxPrintLen - has_sign,
			&printExponent);

		/* if output has a whole number */
		if (printExponent >= 0)
		{
			/* leave the whole number at the start of the buffer */
			numWholeDigits = printExponent + 1;
			if (numDigits <= numWholeDigits)
			{
				int count = numWholeDigits - numDigits;
				pos += numDigits;

				/* don't overflow the buffer */
				if (pos + count > maxPrintLen)
				{
					count = maxPrintLen - pos;
				}

				/* add trailing zeros up to the decimal point */
				numDigits += count;
				for (; count > 0; count--)
				{
					buffer[pos++] = '0';
				}
			}
			/* insert the decimal point prior to the fraction */
			else if (numDigits > numWholeDigits)
			{
				int maxFractionDigits;

				numFractionDigits = numDigits - numWholeDigits;
				maxFractionDigits = maxPrintLen - numWholeDigits - 1 - pos;
				if (numFractionDigits > maxFractionDigits)
				{
					numFractionDigits = maxFractionDigits;
				}

				movemem(buffer + pos + numWholeDigits + 1,
					buffer + pos + numWholeDigits, numFractionDigits);
				pos += numWholeDigits;
				buffer[pos] = '.';
				numDigits = numWholeDigits + 1 + numFractionDigits;
				pos += 1 + numFractionDigits;
			}
		}
		else
		{
			/* shift out the fraction to make room for the leading zeros */
			int numFractionZeros = 0;
			if (pos + 2 < maxPrintLen)
			{
				int maxFractionZeros, digitsStartIdx, maxFractionDigits, i;

				maxFractionZeros = maxPrintLen - 2 - pos;
				numFractionZeros = -(printExponent + 1);
				if (numFractionZeros > maxFractionZeros)
				{
					numFractionZeros = maxFractionZeros;
				}

				digitsStartIdx = 2 + numFractionZeros;


				// * shift the significant digits right such that there is room for
				// * leading zeros
				// */
				numFractionDigits = numDigits;
				maxFractionDigits = maxPrintLen - digitsStartIdx - pos;
				if (numFractionDigits > maxFractionDigits)
				{
					numFractionDigits = maxFractionDigits;
				}

				movemem(buffer + pos + digitsStartIdx, buffer + pos,
					numFractionDigits);

				/* insert the leading zeros */
				for (i = 2; i < digitsStartIdx; ++i)
				{
					buffer[pos + i] = '0';
				}

				/* update the counts */
				numFractionDigits += numFractionZeros;
				numDigits = numFractionDigits;
			}

			/* add the decimal point */
			if (pos + 1 < maxPrintLen)
			{
				buffer[pos + 1] = '.';
			}

			/* add the initial zero */
			if (pos < maxPrintLen)
			{
				buffer[pos] = '0';
				numDigits += 1;
			}
			numWholeDigits = 1;
			pos += 2 + numFractionDigits;
		}

		/* always add decimal point, except for DprZeros mode */
		if (trim_mode != TrimMode_DptZeros && numFractionDigits == 0 &&
			pos < maxPrintLen)
		{
			buffer[pos++] = '.';
		}

		add_digits = digit_mode == DigitMode_Unique ? min_digits : precision;
		desiredFractionalDigits = add_digits < 0 ? 0 : add_digits;
		if (cutoff_mode == CutoffMode_TotalLength)
		{
			desiredFractionalDigits = add_digits - numWholeDigits;
		}

		if (trim_mode == TrimMode_LeaveOneZero)
		{
			/* if we didn't print any fractional digits, add a trailing 0 */
			if (numFractionDigits == 0 && pos < maxPrintLen)
			{
				buffer[pos++] = '0';
				numFractionDigits++;
			}
		}
		else if (trim_mode == TrimMode_None &&
			desiredFractionalDigits > numFractionDigits &&
			pos < maxPrintLen)
		{
			/* add trailing zeros up to add_digits length */
			/* compute the number of trailing zeros needed */
			int count = desiredFractionalDigits - numFractionDigits;
			if (pos + count > maxPrintLen)
			{
				count = maxPrintLen - pos;
			}
			numFractionDigits += count;

			for (; count > 0; count--)
			{
				buffer[pos++] = '0';
			}
		}
		/* else, for trim_mode Zeros or DptZeros, there is nothing more to add */


		// * when rounding, we may still end up with trailing zeros. Remove them
		// * depending on trim settings.
		// */
		if (trim_mode != TrimMode_None && numFractionDigits > 0)
		{
			while (buffer[pos - 1] == '0')
			{
				pos--;
				numFractionDigits--;
			}
			if (buffer[pos - 1] == '.')
			{
				/* in TrimMode_LeaveOneZero, add trailing 0 back */
				if (trim_mode == TrimMode_LeaveOneZero) {
					buffer[pos++] = '0';
					numFractionDigits++;
				}
				/* in TrimMode_DptZeros, remove trailing decimal point */
				else if (trim_mode == TrimMode_DptZeros)
				{
					pos--;
				}
			}
		}

		/* add any whitespace padding to right side */
		if (digits_right >= numFractionDigits)
		{
			int count = digits_right - numFractionDigits;

			/* in trim_mode DptZeros, if right padding, add a space for the . */
			if (trim_mode == TrimMode_DptZeros && numFractionDigits == 0
				&& pos < maxPrintLen)
			{
				buffer[pos++] = ' ';
			}

			if (pos + count > maxPrintLen)
			{
				count = maxPrintLen - pos;
			}

			for (; count > 0; count--)
			{
				buffer[pos++] = ' ';
			}
		}
		/* add any whitespace padding to left side */
		if (digits_left > numWholeDigits + has_sign)
		{
			int shift = digits_left - (numWholeDigits + has_sign);
			int count = pos;

			if (count + shift > maxPrintLen)
			{
				count = maxPrintLen - shift;
			}

			if (count > 0)
			{
				movemem(buffer + shift, buffer, count);
			}
			pos = shift + count;
			for (; shift > 0; shift--)
			{
				buffer[shift - 1] = ' ';
			}
		}

		/* terminate the buffer */
		buffer[pos] = '\0';

		return pos;
	}


	// * Outputs the positive number with scientific notation: d.dddde[sign]ddd
	// * The output is always NUL terminated and the output length (not including the
	// * NUL) is returned.
	// *
	// * Arguments:
	// *	buffer - buffer to output into
	// *	bufferSize - maximum characters that can be printed to buffer
	// *	mantissa - value significand
	// *	exponent - value exponent in base 2
	// *	signbit - value of the sign position. Should be '+', '-' or ''
	// *	mantissaBit - index of the highest set mantissa bit
	// *	hasUnequalMargins - is the high margin twice as large as the low margin
	// *
	// * See dragon4::Options for description of remaining arguments.
	// */
	static unsigned int FormatScientific(char* buffer, unsigned int bufferSize, BigInt* mantissa,
		int exponent, char signbit, unsigned int mantissaBit,
		int hasUnequalMargins, DigitMode digit_mode,
		int precision, int min_digits, TrimMode trim_mode,
		int digits_left, int exp_digits)
	{
		int printExponent;
		int numDigits;
		char* pCurOut;
		int numFractionDigits;
		int leftchars;
		int add_digits;

		pCurOut = buffer;

		/* add any whitespace padding to left side */
		leftchars = 1 + (signbit == '-' || signbit == '+');
		if (digits_left > leftchars)
		{
			int i;
			for (i = 0; i < digits_left - leftchars && bufferSize > 1; i++)
			{
				*pCurOut = ' ';
				pCurOut++;
				--bufferSize;
			}
		}

		if (signbit == '+' && bufferSize > 1)
		{
			*pCurOut = '+';
			pCurOut++;
			--bufferSize;
		}
		else if (signbit == '-' && bufferSize > 1)
		{
			*pCurOut = '-';
			pCurOut++;
			--bufferSize;
		}

		numDigits = Dragon4(mantissa, exponent, mantissaBit, hasUnequalMargins,
			digit_mode, CutoffMode_TotalLength,
			precision < 0 ? -1 : precision + 1,
			min_digits < 0 ? -1 : min_digits + 1,
			pCurOut, bufferSize, & printExponent);

		/* keep the whole number as the first digit */
		if (bufferSize > 1)
		{
			pCurOut += 1;
			bufferSize -= 1;
		}

		/* insert the decimal point prior to the fractional number */
		numFractionDigits = numDigits - 1;
		if (numFractionDigits > 0 && bufferSize > 1)
		{
			int maxFractionDigits = (int)bufferSize - 2;

			if (numFractionDigits > maxFractionDigits)
			{
				numFractionDigits = maxFractionDigits;
			}

			movemem(pCurOut + 1, pCurOut, numFractionDigits);
			pCurOut[0] = '.';
			pCurOut += (1 + numFractionDigits);
			bufferSize -= (1 + numFractionDigits);
		}

		/* always add decimal point, except for DprZeros mode */
		if (trim_mode != TrimMode_DptZeros && numFractionDigits == 0 &&
			bufferSize > 1)
		{
			*pCurOut = '.';
			++pCurOut;
			--bufferSize;
		}

		add_digits = digit_mode == DigitMode_Unique ? min_digits : precision;
		add_digits = add_digits < 0 ? 0 : add_digits;
		if (trim_mode == TrimMode_LeaveOneZero)
		{
			/* if we didn't print any fractional digits, add the 0 */
			if (numFractionDigits == 0 && bufferSize > 1)
			{
				*pCurOut = '0';
				++pCurOut;
				--bufferSize;
				++numFractionDigits;
			}
		}
		else if (trim_mode == TrimMode_None)
		{
			/* add trailing zeros up to add_digits length */
			if (add_digits > (int)numFractionDigits)
			{
				char* pEnd;
				/* compute the number of trailing zeros needed */
				int numZeros = (add_digits - numFractionDigits);

				if (numZeros > (int)bufferSize - 1)
				{
					numZeros = (int)bufferSize - 1;
				}

				for (pEnd = pCurOut + numZeros; pCurOut < pEnd; ++pCurOut)
				{
					*pCurOut = '0';
					++numFractionDigits;
				}
			}
		}
		/* else, for trim_mode Zeros or DptZeros, there is nothing more to add */


		// * when rounding, we may still end up with trailing zeros. Remove them
		// * depending on trim settings.
		// */
		if (trim_mode != TrimMode_None && numFractionDigits > 0)
		{
			--pCurOut;
			while (*pCurOut == '0')
			{
				--pCurOut;
				++bufferSize;
				--numFractionDigits;
			}
			if (trim_mode == TrimMode_LeaveOneZero && *pCurOut == '.')
			{
				++pCurOut;
				*pCurOut = '0';
				--bufferSize;
				++numFractionDigits;
			}
			++pCurOut;
		}

		/* print the exponent into a local buffer and copy into output buffer */
		if (bufferSize > 1)
		{
			char exponentBuffer[7];
			int digits[5];
			int i, exp_size, count;

			if (exp_digits > 5)
			{
				exp_digits = 5;
			}
			if (exp_digits < 0)
			{
				exp_digits = 2;
			}

			exponentBuffer[0] = 'e';
			if (printExponent >= 0)
			{
				exponentBuffer[1] = '+';
			}
			else
			{
				exponentBuffer[1] = '-';
				printExponent = -printExponent;
			}

			/* get exp digits */
			for (i = 0; i < 5; i++)
			{
				digits[i] = printExponent % 10;
				printExponent /= 10;
			}
			/* count back over leading zeros */
			for (i = 5; i > exp_digits && digits[i - 1] == 0; i--)
			{
			}
			exp_size = i;
			/* write remaining digits to tmp buf */
			for (i = exp_size; i > 0; i--)
			{
				exponentBuffer[2 + (exp_size - i)] = (char)('0' + digits[i - 1]);
			}

			/* copy the exponent buffer into the output */
			count = exp_size + 2;
			if (count > (int)bufferSize - 1)
			{
				count = (int)bufferSize - 1;
			}
			movemem(pCurOut, exponentBuffer, count);
			pCurOut += count;
			bufferSize -= count;
		}


		pCurOut[0] = '\0';

		return pCurOut - buffer;
	}


	// * Print special case values for infinities and NaNs.
	// * The output string is always NUL terminated and the string length (not
	// * including the NUL) is returned.
	// */
	static unsigned int PrintInfNan(char* buffer, unsigned int bufferSize, unsigned long long mantissa, unsigned int mantissaHexWidth, char signbit)
	{
		unsigned int maxPrintLen = bufferSize - 1;
		unsigned int pos = 0;

		/* Check for infinity */
		if (mantissa == 0)
		{
			unsigned int printLen;

			/* only print sign for inf values (though nan can have a sign set) */
			if (signbit == '+')
			{
				if (pos < maxPrintLen - 1)
				{
					buffer[pos++] = '+';
				}
			}
			else if (signbit == '-')
			{
				if (pos < maxPrintLen - 1)
				{
					buffer[pos++] = '-';
				}
			}

			/* copy and make sure the buffer is terminated */
			printLen = (3 < maxPrintLen - pos) ? 3 : maxPrintLen - pos;
			movemem(buffer + pos, "inf", printLen);
			buffer[pos + printLen] = '\0';
			return pos + printLen;
		}
		else
		{
			/* copy and make sure the buffer is terminated */
			unsigned int printLen = (3 < maxPrintLen - pos) ? 3 : maxPrintLen - pos;
			movemem(buffer + pos, "nan", printLen);
			buffer[pos + printLen] = '\0';

			return pos + printLen;
		}
	}


	// * The functions below format a floating-point numbers stored in particular
	// * formats,  as a decimal string.  The output string is always NUL terminated
	// * and the string length (not including the NUL) is returned.
	// *
	// * For 16, 32 and 64 bit floats we assume they are the IEEE 754 type.
	// * For 128 bit floats we account for different definitions.
	// *
	// * Arguments are:
	// *   buffer - buffer to output into
	// *   bufferSize - maximum characters that can be printed to buffer
	// *   value - value to print
	// *   opt - Dragon4 options, see above
	// */


	// * Helper function that takes Dragon4 parameters and options and
	// * calls Dragon4.
	// */
	static unsigned int Format_floatbits(char* buffer, unsigned int bufferSize, BigInt* mantissa,
		int exponent, char signbit, unsigned int mantissaBit,
		int hasUnequalMargins, const dragon4::Options* opt)
	{
		/* format the value */
		if (opt->scientific)
		{
			return FormatScientific(buffer, bufferSize, mantissa, exponent,
				signbit, mantissaBit, hasUnequalMargins,
				opt->digit_mode, opt->precision,
				opt->min_digits, opt->trim_mode,
				opt->digits_left, opt->exp_digits);
		}
		else
		{
			return FormatPositional(buffer, bufferSize, mantissa, exponent,
				signbit, mantissaBit, hasUnequalMargins,
				opt->digit_mode, opt->cutoff_mode,
				opt->precision, opt->min_digits, opt->trim_mode,
				opt->digits_left, opt->digits_right);
		}
	}


	// * IEEE binary32 floating-point format
	// *
	// * sign:	  1 bit
	// * exponent:  8 bits
	// * mantissa: 23 bits
	// */
	unsigned int dragon4::PrintFloat_IEEE_binary(dragon4::Scratch* scratch, float value, const dragon4::Options* opt)
	{
		const unsigned int bufferSize = sizeof(scratch->repr);
		BigInt* bigints = scratch->bigints;

		union
		{
			float floatingPoint;
			unsigned int integer;
		} floatUnion;
		unsigned int floatExponent, floatMantissa, floatSign;

		unsigned int mantissa;
		int exponent;
		unsigned int mantissaBit;
		int hasUnequalMargins;
		char signbit = '\0';

		/* deconstruct the floating point value */
		floatUnion.floatingPoint = value;
		floatMantissa = floatUnion.integer & bitmask_u32(23);
		floatExponent = (floatUnion.integer >> 23) & bitmask_u32(8);
		floatSign = floatUnion.integer >> 31;

		/* output the sign */
		if (floatSign != 0)
		{
			signbit = '-';
		}
		else if (opt->sign)
		{
			signbit = '+';
		}

		/* if this is a special value */
		if (floatExponent == bitmask_u32(8))
		{
			return PrintInfNan(scratch->repr, bufferSize, floatMantissa, 6, signbit);
		}
		/* else this is a number */

		/* factor the value into its parts */
		if (floatExponent != 0)
		{

			// * normalized
			// * The floating point equation is:
			// *  value = (1 + mantissa/2^23) * 2 ^ (exponent-127)
			// * We convert the integer equation by factoring a 2^23 out of the
			// * exponent
			// *  value = (1 + mantissa/2^23) * 2^23 * 2 ^ (exponent-127-23)
			// *  value = (2^23 + mantissa) * 2 ^ (exponent-127-23)
			// * Because of the implied 1 in front of the mantissa we have 24 bits of
			// * precision.
			// *   m = (2^23 + mantissa)
			// *   e = (exponent-127-23)
			// */
			mantissa = (1UL << 23) | floatMantissa;
			exponent = floatExponent - 127 - 23;
			mantissaBit = 23;
			hasUnequalMargins = (floatExponent != 1) && (floatMantissa == 0);
		}
		else
		{

			// * denormalized
			// * The floating point equation is:
			// *  value = (mantissa/2^23) * 2 ^ (1-127)
			// * We convert the integer equation by factoring a 2^23 out of the
			// * exponent
			// *  value = (mantissa/2^23) * 2^23 * 2 ^ (1-127-23)
			// *  value = mantissa * 2 ^ (1-127-23)
			// * We have up to 23 bits of precision.
			// *   m = (mantissa)
			// *   e = (1-127-23)
			// */
			mantissa = floatMantissa;
			exponent = 1 - 127 - 23;
			mantissaBit = LogBase2_32(mantissa);
			hasUnequalMargins = false;
		}

		BigInt_Set_uint32(&bigints[0], mantissa);
		return Format_floatbits(scratch->repr, bufferSize, bigints, exponent, signbit, mantissaBit, hasUnequalMargins, opt);
	}


	// * IEEE binary64 floating-point format
	// *
	// * sign:	  1 bit
	// * exponent: 11 bits
	// * mantissa: 52 bits
	// */
	unsigned int dragon4::PrintFloat_IEEE_binary(dragon4::Scratch* scratch, const double& value, const dragon4::Options* opt)
	{
		const unsigned int bufferSize = sizeof(scratch->repr);
		BigInt* bigints = scratch->bigints;

		union
		{
			double floatingPoint;
			unsigned long long integer;
		} floatUnion;
		unsigned int floatExponent, floatSign;
		unsigned long long floatMantissa;

		unsigned long long mantissa;
		int exponent;
		unsigned int mantissaBit;
		int hasUnequalMargins;
		char signbit = '\0';


		/* deconstruct the floating point value */
		floatUnion.floatingPoint = value;
		floatMantissa = floatUnion.integer & bitmask_u64(52);
		floatExponent = (floatUnion.integer >> 52) & bitmask_u32(11);
		floatSign = floatUnion.integer >> 63;

		/* output the sign */
		if (floatSign != 0)
		{
			signbit = '-';
		}
		else if (opt->sign)
		{
			signbit = '+';
		}

		/* if this is a special value */
		if (floatExponent == bitmask_u32(11))
		{
			return PrintInfNan(scratch->repr, bufferSize, floatMantissa, 13, signbit);
		}
		/* else this is a number */

		/* factor the value into its parts */
		if (floatExponent != 0)
		{

			// * normal
			// * The floating point equation is:
			// *  value = (1 + mantissa/2^52) * 2 ^ (exponent-1023)
			// * We convert the integer equation by factoring a 2^52 out of the
			// * exponent
			// *  value = (1 + mantissa/2^52) * 2^52 * 2 ^ (exponent-1023-52)
			// *  value = (2^52 + mantissa) * 2 ^ (exponent-1023-52)
			// * Because of the implied 1 in front of the mantissa we have 53 bits of
			// * precision.
			// *   m = (2^52 + mantissa)
			// *   e = (exponent-1023+1-53)
			// */
			mantissa = (1ull << 52) | floatMantissa;
			exponent = floatExponent - 1023 - 52;
			mantissaBit = 52;
			hasUnequalMargins = (floatExponent != 1) && (floatMantissa == 0);
		}
		else
		{

			// * subnormal
			// * The floating point equation is:
			// *  value = (mantissa/2^52) * 2 ^ (1-1023)
			// * We convert the integer equation by factoring a 2^52 out of the
			// * exponent
			// *  value = (mantissa/2^52) * 2^52 * 2 ^ (1-1023-52)
			// *  value = mantissa * 2 ^ (1-1023-52)
			// * We have up to 52 bits of precision.
			// *   m = (mantissa)
			// *   e = (1-1023-52)
			// */
			mantissa = floatMantissa;
			exponent = 1 - 1023 - 52;
			mantissaBit = LogBase2_64(mantissa);
			hasUnequalMargins = false;
		}

		BigInt_Set_uint64(&bigints[0], mantissa);
		return Format_floatbits(scratch->repr, bufferSize, bigints, exponent, signbit, mantissaBit, hasUnequalMargins, opt);
	}
}

Coding Video

https://youtu.be/ehB_6T0Mo0Y


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